Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition) offers two citation systems: Notes-Bibliography (footnotes + bibliography, used in humanities/history) and Author-Date (in-text citations, used in sciences/social sciences). Both require precise punctuation, italics for titles, and specific formatting. This guide provides practical examples for books, journal articles, websites, and common sources you’ll encounter in academic writing.
Introduction: Why Chicago Style Matters for Your Academic Success
Imagine you’re writing a history research paper. You’ve spent weeks poring over primary sources in the archives—diaries, government documents, rare books. How do you credit these diverse materials without disrupting your narrative flow? How do you help readers find exactly the same edition you consulted?
This is where Chicago Manual of Style enters the picture. Unlike APA’s in-text author-date format or MLA’s author-page system, Chicago style (specifically its Notes-Bibliography system) allows you to place detailed citations in footnotes or endnotes, keeping your text clean while providing full bibliographic information exactly where needed. For disciplines that value source provenance—history, art history, theology, some humanities—this is the gold standard.
The 17th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style remains the authoritative guide, used by major academic journals, university presses, and graduate students worldwide. Mastering Chicago citation isn’t just about avoiding plagiarism—it’s about participating in a centuries-old scholarly conversation with precision and integrity.
Key takeaway: Chicago offers flexibility. The Notes-Bibliography system (NB) suits humanities disciplines with diverse source types. The Author-Date system (AD) fits sciences and social sciences that prioritize currency and brief in-text references.
Table of Contents
- Understanding Chicago’s Two Citation Systems
- Notes-Bibliography System: The Humanities Approach
- Author-Date System: Sciences and Social Sciences
- When to Use Chicago vs. APA vs. MLA
- Common Chicago Citation Examples
- Formatting Guidelines: Margins, Fonts, and Layout
- 10 Common Chicago Style Mistakes (And How to Fix Them)
- Chicago Style Tools and Resources
- Frequently Asked Questions
- Summary and Next Steps
Understanding Chicago’s Two Citation Systems
The Chicago Manual of Style 17th edition presents two distinct documentation systems. Understanding which one to use is your first—and most important—decision.
Notes-Bibliography (NB) System
The Notes-Bibliography system is characterized by:
- Superscript numbers in the text (¹) that correspond to footnotes or endnotes
- Full citations in the first note for each source
- Shortened notes for subsequent citations of the same source
- Alphabetized bibliography at the end (titled “Bibliography” or “References”)
Who uses it? History, art history, literature (especially older texts), theology, philosophy, and some interdisciplinary humanities fields. Historians particularly value NB because it allows extensive commentary in notes without cluttering the main text.
Author-Date (AD) System
The Author-Date system features:
- Parenthetical in-text citations with author’s last name, year, and page number: (Smith 2020, 45)
- Reference list (not bibliography) at the end, alphabetized by author
- No footnotes for citation purposes (though explanatory notes are allowed)
- Emphasis on publication date—readers can see immediately how current the research is
Who uses it? Physical sciences, social sciences (sociology, anthropology, political science), economics, and some interdisciplinary fields. The AD system aligns with the scientific emphasis on recency and efficiency.
Important: Your department, professor, or target journal will specify which system to use. Never choose arbitrarily.
Notes-Bibliography System: The Humanities Approach
Let’s dive deep into the NB system—the one most people think of when they say “Chicago style.”
Basic Footnote/Bibliography Format
Footnote structure:
1. First Name Last Name, Title of Book (Place of Publication: Publisher, Year), Page Number.
Bibliography structure:
Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year.
Key differences:
- Name order: First-last in notes; last-first in bibliography
- Italics vs. quotes: Book/journal titles italicized; article/chapter titles in quotes
- Punctuation: Notes use commas between elements; bibliography uses periods
- Indentation: Bibliography uses hanging indent (first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5″)
Word Processing Implementation
In Microsoft Word:
- Insert → Footnote (or use shortcut Ctrl+Alt+F)
- Word automatically numbers and places footnote at bottom of page
- Format footnotes with normal paragraph style (single-spaced, small font like 10pt)
- For endnotes, choose Insert → Endnote
In Google Docs:
- Insert → Footnotes
- Google Docs creates superscript number and footnote at bottom
- Ensure consistent formatting manually (Chicago recommends single-spaced notes with blank line between entries)
Multiple Authors: 2, 3, 4+
Two authors:
- Note: 1. First Author and Second Author, Title (Place: Publisher, Year), page.
- Bibliography: First Author, and Second Author. Title. Place: Publisher, Year.
Three authors:
- Note: 1. First Author, Second Author, and Third Author, Title (Place: Publisher, Year), page.
- Bibliography: First Author, Second Author, and Third Author. Title. Place: Publisher, Year.
Four or more authors:
Chicago recommends listing all authors in bibliography but using “et al.” in notes after the first author:
- First note: 1. First Author et al., Title (Place: Publisher, Year), page.
- Subsequent notes: 2. First Author et al., Shortened Title, page.
- Bibliography: List all authors: First Author, Second Author, Third Author, and Fourth Author. Title. Place: Publisher, Year.
No Author? Start with Title
If no author is listed, begin the citation with the title:
- Note: 1. Title of Book (Place: Publisher, Year), page.
- Bibliography: Title of Book. Place: Publisher, Year.
Alphabetize bibliography entries by the first significant word of the title (ignore “A,” “An,” “The”).
Publishers: When to Omit Common Words
Chicago style omits certain publishers’ common words:
- “Co.” and “Inc.” are generally omitted
- “University Press” is included if part of the name (e.g., “Oxford University Press”)
- “Publishers” may be omitted if it’s the only descriptor
Example:
- Correct: Harvard University Press
- Correct: Routledge (not “Routledge Publishers”)
Translators
Include translator’s name after title:
- Note: 1. Original Author, Title (trans. Translator Name; Place: Publisher, Year), page.
- Bibliography: Original Author. Title. Translated by Translator Name. Place: Publisher, Year.
If the translator is the primary focus, invert their name and list at the beginning.
Author-Date System: Sciences and Social Sciences
The Author-Date system prioritizes efficiency and currency—critical in fast-moving scientific fields.
Basic In-Text Citation Format
(Author Year, Page)
Examples:
- Single author: (Smith 2020, 45)
- Two authors: (Smith and Jones 2020, 45) or (Smith & Jones 2020, 45)
- Three or more authors: (Smith et al. 2020, 45)
- No page number (paraphrase): (Smith 2020)
- Multiple citations in one parenthesis: (Smith 2020; Jones 2019; Brown 2018)
Placement: Place the citation at the end of the sentence or clause it references, before the period.
Reference List Format
The reference list (not bibliography) alphabetizes entries by author’s last name:
Author, First Name. Year. *Title of Book*. Place of Publication: Publisher.
Author, First Name, and Second Author. Year. "Article Title." *Journal Title* Volume, no. Issue: page range. DOI.
Author, First Name. Year. "Web Page Title." *Site Name*. Last modified Month Day, Year. URL.
Key differences from NB system:
- Year appears immediately after author’s name
- No parentheses around publication details
- Title of book/article format varies (see examples)
- Include DOI or stable URL when available
When to Include Page Numbers
Include page numbers in Author-Date citations when:
- Directly quoting
- Paraphrasing a specific passage
- Referring to a specific section, table, or figure
If you’re discussing the entire work generally, page number may be omitted.
Multiple Works by Same Author
List entries chronologically (earliest first). Multiple works from same year get lowercase letters:
Smith, John. 2018a. *Title of First Book*. Place: Publisher.
Smith, John. 2018b. *Title of Second Book*. Place: Publisher.
In-text: (Smith 2018a, 23) or (Smith 2018b, 45)
When to Use Chicago vs. APA vs. MLA
One of the most frequent questions students ask: “Which citation style should I use?” Here’s the definitive breakdown.
Quick Decision Table
| Discipline/Course |
Recommended Style |
Why |
| History, Art History, Theology |
Chicago Notes-Bibliography |
Accommodates diverse primary sources; footnotes preserve narrative flow |
| Literature, Languages, Cultural Studies |
MLA (Modern Language Association) |
Author-page format suits textual analysis; minimal publication data |
| Psychology, Sociology, Education, Nursing |
APA (American Psychological Association) |
Emphasizes recency (date immediately after author); aligns with social science writing |
| Engineering, Computer Science, Physical Sciences |
Chicago Author-Date OR IEEE |
Author-Date provides efficiency; IEEE uses numbered references |
| Business, Economics |
APA OR Chicago Author-Date |
APA more common; some business journals use Chicago AD |
| interdisciplinary Humanities |
Chicago Notes-Bibliography |
Flexibility with diverse source types |
Important exceptions:
- Always check your department’s official style guide
- Some university presses have Chicago variations
- International institutions may use Harvard (similar to Author-Date)
- Law reviews often use Bluebook (completely different system)
If in doubt, consult:
- Your professor’s syllabus or assignment guidelines
- The journal’s author instructions (if submitting for publication)
- Your discipline’s style guide (e.g., MLA Handbook, APA Publication Manual)
- Chicago Manual of Style Online (has discipline-specific recommendations)
Chicago vs. MLA: Key Differences
| Feature |
Chicago (NB) |
MLA |
| In-text |
Footnotes with numbers |
Parenthetical (Author page) |
| Bibliography title |
Bibliography |
Works Cited |
| Author names |
First-last in notes; last-first in bib |
Last-first throughout |
| Dates |
At end of entry |
After author in in-text |
| Book titles |
Italicized |
Italicized |
| Article titles |
In quotes |
In quotes |
| Publishers |
Place: Publisher |
Publisher, Year |
Chicago vs. APA: Key Differences
| Feature |
Chicago (Author-Date) |
APA |
| In-text |
(Author Year, page) |
(Author, Year, p. xx) |
| Reference title |
References |
References |
| Author names |
Last-first in reference |
Last-first with initials |
| Dates |
Immediately after author |
In parentheses after author |
| Multiple authors |
“et al.” for 4+ in-text; all in reference |
“et al.” for 3+ in-text; up to 20 in reference |
| Book titles |
Italicized, sentence case |
Italicized, sentence case |
Common Chicago Citation Examples
The best way to learn Chicago style is through examples. Below are the most common source types you’ll encounter, formatted for both NB and Author-Date systems.
Book (Single Author)
Notes-Bibliography:
Note: 1. Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (New York: Liveright, 2015), 142.
Bibliography: Beard, Mary. SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. New York: Liveright, 2015.
Author-Date:
Reference: Beard, Mary. 2015. SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. New York: Liveright.
In-text: (Beard 2015, 142)
Chapter or Essay in an Edited Book
Notes-Bibliography:
Note: 1. John Smith, "The Medieval Trade Routes," in Commerce and Culture, ed. Jane Doe (London: Academic Press, 2018), 45-67.
Bibliography: Smith, John. "The Medieval Trade Routes." In Commerce and Culture, edited by Jane Doe, 45-67. London: Academic Press, 2018.
Author-Date:
Reference: Smith, John. 2018. "The Medieval Trade Routes." In Commerce and Culture, edited by Jane Doe, 45-67. London: Academic Press.
In-text: (Smith 2018, 52)
Journal Article (Print or Online with DOI)
Notes-Bibliography:
Note: 1. Amanda Lee, "Cognitive Biases in Decision Making," Journal of Behavioral Economics 45, no. 3 (2021): 234-256, https://doi.org/10.1234/5678.
Bibliography: Lee, Amanda. "Cognitive Biases in Decision Making." Journal of Behavioral Economics 45, no. 3 (2021): 234-256. https://doi.org/10.1234/5678.
Author-Date:
Reference: Lee, Amanda. 2021. "Cognitive Biases in Decision Making." Journal of Behavioral Economics 45, no. 3: 234-256. https://doi.org/10.1234/5678.
In-text: (Lee 2021, 240)
Website (No Author)
Notes-Bibliography:
Note: 1. "Climate Change: Evidence and Causes," *NASA*, last modified January 5, 2023, https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/.
Bibliography: "Climate Change: Evidence and Causes." *NASA*. Last modified January 5, 2023. https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/.
Author-Date:
Reference: "Climate Change: Evidence and Causes." 2023. *NASA*. Last modified January 5, 2023. https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/.
In-text: ("Climate Change" 2023)
Newspaper or Magazine Article
Notes-Bibliography:
Note: 1. James Brown, "The Future of Renewable Energy," *The New York Times*, March 15, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/15/renewable-energy/.
Bibliography: Brown, James. "The Future of Renewable Energy." *The New York Times*, March 15, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/15/renewable-energy/.
Classic Religious or Legal Texts (Bible, Constitution)
Chicago NB (Bible example):
Note: 1. Bible, King James Version, Matthew 5:3-10.
First citation: Bible, King James Version, Matthew 5:3-10.
Subsequent citations: Matt. 5:3-10.
Note: Chicago discourages citing classic works in Author-Date due to uniform pagination issues.
Secondary Source ( Citing a Source Within a Source)
Always try to locate the original source. If impossible:
Notes-Bibliography:
Note: 1. Original Author, *Title* (Place: Publisher, Year), page, quoted in Secondary Author, *Title* (Place: Publisher, Year), page.
Author-Date:
(Original Author Year, page, as cited in Secondary Author Year, page)
In bibliography/reference list, include ONLY the secondary source you actually consulted.
Chicago style specifies precise formatting requirements that may be enforced by your professor or journal editor.
General Page Layout
Margins: Minimum 1-inch (2.54 cm) on all sides (top, bottom, left, right)
Font: readable, typically 12-point. Common choices:
- Times New Roman (most common)
- Times New Roman (traditional)
- Arial or Calibri (acceptable sans-serif alternatives)
- Georgia or Garamond (acceptable serif alternatives)
Line spacing: Double-space the text (including block quotes). Footnotes/endnotes are usually single-spaced with a blank line between entries.
Paragraph indentation: Indent first line of each paragraph 0.5″ (1.27 cm). No extra space between paragraphs.
Page numbers: Begin on first page of text (title page may be unnumbered). Typically placed in top right corner, sometimes centered bottom. Use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3…).
Justification: Left-aligned (ragged right edge). Do not fully justify text unless specifically instructed.
Title Page (If Required)
Notes-Bibliography (book/thesis):
Title of Paper
centered, about 1/3 down page
centered, on next line: Your Name
centered, on next line: Course/Instructor
centered, on next line: Date
Author-Date (journal article):
- No title page typically required
- Title centered as first line of first page (double-spaced)
- Author name, affiliation, contact info below title
- Course info optional for student papers
Headings
Chicago permits various heading styles. A clear hierarchy is essential:
Option 1 (Common for student papers):
- Level 1: Centered, bold or headline-style capitalization
- Level 2: Centered, regular style, sentence case
- Level 3: Left-aligned, bold or italic, sentence case
- Level 4: Run-in heading (paragraph starts immediately after), bold or italic, sentence case, period.
Example:
## Level 1: Centered, Headline Style
## Level 2: Centered, Sentence case
### Level 3: Left-Aligned, Bold
### Level 3. Run-in heading. Bold sentence case.
Chicago discourages numbering headings in student papers unless your discipline requires it (common in technical fields).
Long Quotations (Block Quotes)
Quotes of 100 words or more (approximately 6-8 lines) should be formatted as block quotes:
- Start on a new line
- Single-space the entire quote (double-spacing is acceptable if your paper is double-spaced)
- Do NOT use quotation marks
- Indent entire block 0.5″ from left margin (no right indent)
- Place the footnote/endnote number after the final punctuation
- If the quote contains internal paragraph breaks, indicate with extra indentation or line breaks
Example:
In his reflections on modernity, Bauman argues that the very structure of contemporary life has
become fluid, uncertain, and constantly shifting. This liquidity permeates not just our
economic systems but our very identities:
Modern life has become a game of seeking and winning, acquiring and consuming, and
constant upgrading. The individual's task is to remain attractive, flexible, and
ready to change direction at a moment's notice. There is no longer a stable
foundation from which to act or a predictable horizon toward which to strive.
Not only have the certainties of the past evaporated, but the very idea of certainty
has become suspect. (Bauman 2000, 34-35)
10 Common Chicago Style Mistakes (And How to Fix Them)
Based on analysis of thousands of student papers, here are the most frequent Chicago style errors—and how to fix them.
1. Misplacing the Footnote Number
❌ Wrong: The study found significant results¹.
✅ Correct: The study found significant results.¹
Rule: Superscript numbers go after punctuation (period, comma), never before. If placing after a clause, place after the comma or closing parenthesis.
2. Using “Ibid.” Incorrectly
❌ Wrong: Multiple “Ibid.” entries in a row without checking for source changes.
✅ Correct: Use “Ibid.” only for consecutive citations of the exact same source (same page). If citing the same source but different page, use shortened note.
Chicago 17th edition discourages “Ibid.” unless absolutely necessary. Modern usage prefers shortened notes for clarity.
3. Confusing Notes with Bibliography Format
❌ Wrong: Using note format (First Last) in bibliography instead of reversed (Last, First).
✅ Correct: Always reverse author names in bibliography.
4. Incorrect Punctuation in Bibliographies
❌ Wrong: Beard, Mary, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome, New York: Liveright, 2015.
✅ Correct: Beard, Mary. SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. New York: Liveright, 2015.
Rule: Bibliographies use periods between major elements (author, title, publication info). Notes use commas.
5. Including URLs in the Wrong Format
❌ Wrong: Retrieved from https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/
✅ Correct: https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/
Rule: URLs should be active hyperlinks in digital papers. Do not add “Retrieved from” or “Accessed” unless your instructor requires it.
6. Forgetting to Italicize Book and Journal Titles
❌ Wrong: Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (New York: Liveright, 2015), 142.
✅ Correct: Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (New York: Liveright, 2015), 142.
Rule: Book titles and journal names are italicized. Article/chapter titles are in quotes, using headline-style capitalization (major words capitalized).
7. Omitting the Place of Publication
❌ Wrong: (Liveright, 2015)
✅ Correct: (New York: Liveright, 2015)
Always include place of publication for books unless using the Author-Date system (which sometimes omits place for well-known publishers).
8. Inconsistent Shortened Notes
❌ Wrong: First citation: 1. Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (New York: Liveright, 2015), 142.
Second citation: 2. Beard, p. 145.
✅ Correct: After first full citation, use: 2. Beard, SPQR, 145.
OR use author + shortened title consistently.
9. Including Access Dates Unnecessarily
❌ Wrong: Last modified January 5, 2023, accessed January 10, 2023, https://…
✅ Correct: Last modified January 5, 2023, https://…
Rule: For stable online sources (academic journals, government sites, news articles with clear dates), access date is optional in 17th edition. Include when:
- No publication/last modified date is available
- The content is time-sensitive (wikis, some blogs)
- Your instructor requests it
10. Alphabetizing Bibliography Incorrectly
❌ Wrong: Alphabetizing by article title “A” or ignoring “St.” vs “Saint”
✅ Correct: Alphabetize by author’s last name. If no author, use first significant word of title (ignore “A,” “An,” “The”). Treat “St.” as “Saint” for alphabetization ( Saint Paul’s comes before St. Louis’s).
While learning Chicago style manually is essential, these tools can save time and reduce errors.
Citation Generators
Zotero (Free, recommended)
- Best overall for Chicago NB
- Browser extension captures source metadata automatically
- Word processor plugin inserts citations and generates bibliography
- Can switch between citation styles
- Link: https://www.zotero.org/
Mendeley (Free)
- Strong PDF management + citation features
- Good for collaborative research groups
- Chicago NB and Author-Date supported
- Link: https://www.mendeley.com/
EndNote (Paid, institutional licenses common)
- Industry standard in many universities
- Extensive style library (10,000+ citation styles)
- Advanced PDF annotation and organization
- Link: https://endnote.com/
Citation Machine (Free with limitations)
⚠️ Tool Caution: Always verify generated citations against the Chicago Manual or Purdue OWL. Automated tools occasionally misplace elements (especially with edited books, chapters, non-standard sources).
Official Style Guides
The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th Edition
Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab)
Your University Writing Center
- Most universities offer Chicago style handouts
- Often include discipline-specific adaptations
- Free consultations (in-person or online)
Chicago Style Templates
Download these pre-formatted templates to avoid layout errors:
General Paper (Notes-Bibliography):
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_nb_sample_paper.html
General Paper (Author-Date):
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_author_date_sample_paper.html
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: “How many footnotes can I have?”
Chicago style doesn’t limit footnote quantity. In fact, historians often have extensive footnotes. However, for typical undergraduate papers, 20-50 footnotes across a 10-15 page paper is common. Over 1 footnote per paragraph may indicate over-citing.
Q: “Can I use Chicago style for scientific papers?”
Chicago Author-Date is acceptable for some social sciences and interdisciplinary fields. However, most pure sciences (biology, chemistry, physics) use:
- APA (some social sciences)
- CSE (Council of Science Editors) for biology
- ACS (American Chemical Society) for chemistry
- APS (American Physical Society) for physics
- IEEE for engineering/computer science
Check your target journal’s guidelines.
Q: “Do I need a bibliography if I have footnotes?”
Yes. Chicago NB requires both footnotes/endnotes AND a bibliography. Exceptions:
- Very short papers (under 5 pages) where instructor waives requirement
- Some publications integrate footnotes and bibliography differently
Q: “What if I cite the same source multiple times in one paragraph?”
Use shortened notes after the first full citation:
First citation: 1. Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (New York: Liveright, 2015), 142.
Second in same paragraph: 2. Beard, SPQR, 145.
If citing consecutively (no other sources in between), “Ibid.” is acceptable but not required. Many Chicago style guides now discourage “Ibid.” for clarity.
Q: “How do I cite a source with no page numbers?”
For ebooks or websites without stable pagination:
- Use chapter/section numbers if available: (chap. 3) or (sec. 2.1)
- Omit page number if no stable locator exists
- In footnotes, provide section description: “Title of Web Page,” Site Name, accessed Month Day, Year, URL.
For Author-Date in-text: (Smith 2020, chap. 3) or (Smith 2020)
Q: “Can Chicago style be used in undergraduate papers?”
Yes! Chicago NB is perfectly appropriate for:
- History term papers
- Art history visual analysis papers
- Philosophy papers requiring extensive commentary
- Any discipline where your professor specifies Chicago
Check first: Many introductory courses prefer MLA or APA because they’re simpler. Reserve Chicago for when specifically required or for advanced humanities work.
Q: “What’s the difference between footnotes and endnotes?”
- Footnotes: Appear at bottom of same page where cited. More convenient for readers to check immediately. Standard in books and some journals.
- Endnotes: Appear at end of chapter or entire document. Keeps page layout cleaner. Used by some journals and in long manuscripts.
- Choice: Usually specified by instructor/publisher. For student papers, footnotes are more common in Chicago NB.
From a reader’s perspective, footnotes are more accessible (no page-flipping). Endnotes preserve page aesthetics but require more effort.
Q: “Do I need to cite every sentence?”
No. Citation requirements vary by discipline:
- Sciences (Author-Date): Citation required for every factual claim that is not common knowledge or your own analysis.
- Humanities (NB): Often fewer citations because primary source analysis predominates; still cite when quoting, paraphrasing, or citing specific secondary sources.
- Rule of thumb: If the information/idea comes from a specific source (not your own analysis), cite it. When in doubt, cite.
Q: “Can I mix Chicago and APA in one paper?”
No. Use one consistent style throughout your paper (unless explicitly instructed otherwise). Mixing styles appears unprofessional and confuses readers.
Q: “How do I handle multiple citations from the same author in the same year?”
Add lowercase letters after the year in Author-Date:
Reference list:
Smith, John. 2020a. *Title of First Work*. Place: Publisher.
Smith, John. 2020b. *Title of Second Work*. Place: Publisher.
In-text: (Smith 2020a) or (Smith 2020b)
This doesn’t apply to NB footnotes—just use shortened titles to differentiate.
Summary and Next Steps
You’ve now learned the essentials of Chicago Manual of Style citation:
Key distinctions:
- Notes-Bibliography: Footnotes + bibliography. Used in history, art history, some humanities. Allows detailed commentary without cluttering text.
- Author-Date: In-text (Author Year, page) + reference list. Used in sciences, social sciences. Emphasizes recency and efficiency.
- Both systems require precise punctuation, italics for titles, and consistent formatting.
What to do next:
- Determine which system your instructor or journal requires. Never guess. Ask explicitly if unclear.
- Practice with 3-5 real sources from your own research. Create footnotes/endnotes and bibliography entries for:
- One book
- One journal article
- One website
- One chapter in an edited book
- Use a citation manager (Zotero recommended) to store sources and generate citations. But always verify the output against official examples—automated tools make mistakes.
- Download a Chicago style template for your word processor. Set up your paper correctly before you start writing to avoid formatting chaos later.
- Bookmark authoritative references:
- Consider your discipline’s expectations. If you’re a history major, invest time in mastering NB. If you’re in sociology, Author-Date will serve you better (or possibly APA).
Related Guides
For comprehensive citation knowledge, explore these related resources on our site:
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